Health effects of swimming pool disinfection.
Disinfectants that are used for swimming pool disinfection water can
affect human health.
Too much chlorine can cause eczema and rashes. Water that has a high pH
value increases susceptivity to these kind of ailments.
When water is mobile, it comes in contact
with a sufficient amount of of air. Carbon dioxide is released into the water, causing the pH
value to decrease. When one applies chlorine, chlorine gas will evaporate.
Free active chlorine
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
and hypochlorite (OCl-) are the main components of free active
chlorine.
Swimming pool water has a high pH value and
the amount of dissolved chlorine gas as free active chlorine is negligible.
Free active chlorine hardly ever causes eye
irritations. These only occur above concentrations of 20 mg/L.
Dissolved chlorine and chlorine substances
dehydrate hair and skin.
The air above the pool contains chlorine gas
concentrations
between 0,01 and 0,1 mg/m3.
These concentrations are far below the level that irritates respirational
tracts.
Through the formation of combined active
chlorine, free active chlorine can cause irritation.
Combined active chlorine
Combined active chlorine is
the generic term for reaction products produced by free active chlorine with
organic and inorganic nitrogen pollutions.
These pollutions are made of swimmers
excretion products. Combined active chlorine is a complex mixture of partly
unknown substances, such as chlorine ureum combinations, chloramines and chlorine kreatines.
The irritating effects of combined active
chlorine are often ascribed to chloramines (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3).
Chloramines are volatile substances that
partly escape from water as gas. Like chloroform, chloramines cause the well
known 'chlorine smell' in swimming pools.
The formation of di- and trichloramines
increases when the free active chlorine concentration is increased and the pH
value is lowered.
The typical 'chlorine smell' in swimming
pools arises at ureum levels of 0,5 mg/L and free active chlorine
concentrations of 1,0 mg/L.
There is no relation between chloramine
formation and ureum concentration.
Monochloramines cause eye irritations. At
normal pH levels in swimming pools, monochloramine is produced predominantly.
Both di- and trichloramines irritate eyes.
These substances reach the eyes through water and through the air above the
pool.
Trichloramine also irritates air tracts.
Other chlorinated organic subtances are suspected to irritate as well,
particularly chlorinated ammonia, kreatinine and urine acid.
The combined active chlorine concentration in
swimming pools should be below 1 mg/l.
Disinfection byproducts: chloroform
Some disinfection byproducts, such
as trihalomethane chloroform, are suspected carcinogenic.
Trihalomethane concentration depends upon
total organic carbon,
the number of swimmers and the water temperature.
Chloroform is the most important reaction
product.
Additionally, other trihalomethanes,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane, trichloroethene, bromodichloromethane and
other chlorobromo hydrogen carbons can be found.
Chloroform and similar substances are
volatile. Some part escapes from water and swimmers are exposed through
inhalation.
Chloroform concentrations in swimming pools
vary a lot. Chloroform concentrations are highest just above the water. The suggested
health standard for chloroform 100 mg/m3, this
concentration is found in indoor swimming pools.
Swimming is one of the main sources of
non-professional exposure to chloroform (over 70% percent after one hour of
swimming).
In outdoor swimming pools exposure is lower,
because the wind ventilates the air above the water.
Exposure to chloroform can be measured in
blood plasma of swimmers.
Swimmers that swim for a long time with great
physical effort (competitive swimmers) take up most chloroform.
Chloroform concentrations in air is the main
factor that determines the amount of chloroform that is absorbed. The time
interval, the number of swimmers and the chloroform concentration in water are
less important factors.
Effects of chloroform
Exposure to low concentrations
of chloroform causes renal and liver defects. These can be demonstrated by
enzymes in the blood which are indicators for renal- and liver functions.
Epidemiological research shows there might be
a relation between skin exposure to chlorinated organic substances and
hypochlorite, and skin cancer.
This relation has not been proved by
laboratory animal tests.
Long-term oral exposure of laboratory animals
to chloroform through food caused liver cancer.
Health complaints of swimming pool attendants
Especially swimming pool
attendants are exposed to swimming pool disinfection byproducts for a long
period of time.
Dutch research, carried out in 2001 by
Abvakabo Nederland, concerned working conditions in swimming pools.
Swimming pool attendants were interviewed.
The research shows that a lot of employees suffer from forgetfulness, fatigue,
chronic colds, voice problems, eye irritations, headache, sore throat, eczema
and frontal sinus inflammation.
Fertility problems are also mentioned. All
problems are probably caused by working conditions. People work long hours in a
warm, humid environment and are exposed to chemical substances.
Swimming pool ventilation is often
insufficient and volatile disinfection byproducts remain.
If swimming pool attendants do not work,
health problems vanish and a sense of health returns.
Alternative disinfectants that produce less
disinfection byproducts and improved ventilation can prevent or at least
minimize problems.
Epidemiologich research
Effects of exposure to
swimming pool disinfectants and byproducts have been researched a couple of
times.
Competitive swimmers weekly spent many hours
in swimming pools. During exercise their physical effort is large. Their
inhalation is more deeply and more powerful than that of recreational swimmers.
They inhale more air and absorb more chlorine products.
Lung functions of swimmers decrease when they
are swimming in pools that are disinfected by chlorine. Many competitive
swimmers suffer from asthma.
Complaints disappear when they swim in
outdoor pools, because the wind removes gases from the air above the pool.
Children inhale more air per unit body than
adults do. They relatively absorb more gaseous substances and the health risk
for children is bigger.
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| At low pH values in swimming pools, the teeth can be damaged |
Swimming pools that are disinfected by
chlorine gas can produce hydrochloric acid with sunlight. This causes the pH
value to drop.
When pH values drop below 3,6, swimmers can
suffer from dental abrasion. Tooth enamel dissolves and the teeth become
brittle and sensitive.
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